The Leader Who Fled while the Muslims Fought
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious the Most Merciful
The Mongol invasions are often portrayed as an unstoppable force overwhelming the Islamic world, beyond Muslim capacity to resist. Yet it was the ineffective leadership—especially the flight of Khwarazm’s ruler, Muhammad Shah II—that hastened the empire’s collapse. Amid this tragedy, however, emerge stories of resilience: Muslims, abandoned by their leaders, stood and fought while others surrendered or fled. This article highlights their bravery, showing how the spirit of resistance, stronger than any single leader, spread across besieged towns—a deeper victory than military success alone.
An Isolated Leader
Before the Mongols stormed into the Islamic world, Central Asia was ruled by the Khwarazmian Empire, which rose after the Seljuks' decline. Its territory spanned modern Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Iran, and parts of Pakistan. In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan held a peace treaty with its ruler, Muhammad Shah II, while eyeing the Abbasid Caliphate. In 1218, the Khwarazmian governor of Otrar, Inalchuq, seized and executed a Mongol trade caravan, believing them to be spies. Genghis Khan sent a letter to the Shah demanding the governor be handed over for punishment. The Shah refused, viewing it as interference in his sovereignty. He had the envoy executed, giving the Khan the pretext for war. (Islam, 2016, pg 315-6).
Muhammad Khwarazm Shah was a controversial ruler, better known for alienating allies than forging unity. Historian Ibn al-Athir notes that his 21-year reign was marked by ‘removing most of his rivals.’ Focused on consolidating power, he neglected alliances with other Muslim leaders, including the Abbasid Caliph al-Nasir in Baghdad, with whom he had a hostile relationship. Similarly, neighbouring powers like the Turks and Ghurids had no agreements with the Shah and were under no obligation to support him. Lacking allies, he faced the Mongols alone—while their army, by contrast, was strengthened by inter-tribal unity, comprising Mongols, Turks, Tartars, and others. (Ibn Athir, 2015, pg 1-2)
In 1219, Genghis Khan and Muhammad Khwarazm Shah clashed east of the Syr Darya in present-day Kazakhstan. The battle lasted four days, with 20,000 Muslims martyred and the Mongols suffering heavy losses. Outnumbered and without reinforcements, the Muslim forces were soon overwhelmed. The Shah abandoned his army, fleeing to his capital, Gurganj - more concerned with securing his throne than leading his men. This left Muslims in smaller towns exposed and defenceless. (Davidson, 2024).
Invasion of the Muslim world
The Mongol onslaught against the Khwarazmian Empire began with the brutal siege of Otrar in 1219, after the infamous massacre of a Mongol trade caravan—an act that sealed the empire's fate. The city's governor, Inalchuq, stood defiant against the invaders. When the Mongols breached the outer defences, leaders who attempted to flee were captured and executed without mercy. Yet, the citadel itself became a beacon of Muslim resistance, holding out fiercely for over a month. Muslim warriors launched relentless counter-attacks, storming the invaders with desperate bravery, wave after wave, until the last defenders were martyred on its bloodied walls.
Bukhara followed. Here, the Mongols promised leniency if the gates were opened peacefully. This offer sparked fierce debate among the Muslims—some, hoping to spare the populace, argued for surrender; others, unwilling to trust the enemy's word, took refuge in the city's fortified citadel, resolved to fight to the last breath. When the gates were inevitably opened, Genghis Khan entered but wasted no time laying siege to the citadel, which endured for ten harrowing days. The Muslim defenders fought with unmatched valour, refusing surrender until every last one was slain, martyred in the ruins of their sanctuary (Juvaini, 1958, 317-9).
In Samarqand, the situation was more tragic. The city, famed for its grandeur and scholarship, saw its military paralysed by fear. Refusing to face the invaders, they left civilians to organise their own desperate defence. For three days, common citizens, scholars, and volunteers took up arms against the Mongol tide. On the third day, the Mongols feigned a retreat, luring the defenders into an ambush where they were surrounded and annihilated—‘over 50,000 Khwarazmian fighters perished in that engagement alone.’ The remaining soldiers and civilians surrendered, clinging to Mongol promises of mercy. Yet, true to the invaders' cruelty, many were executed despite their submission, while others were enslaved and scattered across the steppes. (Stubbs, 2020).
The Lonely Demise of the Shah
While Muslims fought, a Mongol army pursued Muhammad Khwarazm Shah, who fled with his family. In April 1220, they tracked him into Khurasan but lost his trail near Nishapur. By December, he reached an island in the Caspian Sea with a small group, eventually rowing ‘to a small island Astrabad,’ where he died days later. Some say he succumbed to illness; others claim he died of despair over losing his empire. (Davidson, 2024)
The Real Heroes of the Story
This is not a story of poor leadership, but of the brave Muslims who resisted tyranny. The people of Bukhara, Otrar, Samarqand, and other cities formed garrisons and fought—these are the ones who should be remembered. While history praises Genghis Khan’s military feats, few recognise the courage of those who stood firm against annihilation, bearing the cost of their ruler’s failures.
Abandoned by Baghdad, neighbouring towns, and the Shah’s forces, these residents gathered to fight back—even resisting their own neighbours who betrayed them by opening the gates to the invaders.
The Mongols stormed in like a roaring flash, only to fracture as swiftly as they arrived. Yet the stories of the Muslims who resisted remain, immortalised by their sacrifice against oppression.
Their leader died alone, fleeing to save his life and throne—only to lose both. If history judges justly, then who are the real heroes?
May Allah bless the Muslims who bravely stood against the Mongols, and inspire courageous heroes among us who steadfastly resist in the face of overwhelming tyranny. Ameen.
Jazākum Allāhu khayran for reading. I warmly invite your thoughts, reflections, and feedback in the comments below.
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Bibliography
DEREK DAVISON, 2024, ”Today in Central Asian History: The Uprising Begins (1916)." Foreign Exchanges. https://www.foreignexchanges.news/p/today-in-central-asian-history-the-022.
Islam, Arshad. (2016). The Mongol Invasions of Central Asia. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity. 6. 315-319. 10.7763/IJSSH.2016.V6.664. Accessed [July, 2025].
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279252203_The_Mongol_Invasions_of_Central_Asia.
Juvaini, 'Ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik. The History of the World-Conqueror. Translated by John Andrew Boyle, vol. 1, Harvard University Press, 1958. Internet Archive Accessed [July, 2025]. https://archive.org/details/historyof...
‘Selections from Tarikh Al Kamil by Ibn Al-Athir’ (English), 2015, Australian Islamic Library
Accessed [July, 2025]. www.australianislamiclibrary.org https://archive.org/details/IbnAlAthirInCicilianMuslims/Chronicle_of_Ibn_al_Athir%20Part%203%20Intro/page/n3/mode/2up
Stubbs, K, HistoryNet. Facing the Wrath of the Khan, 2020 Accessed [July, 2025].
https://www.historynet.com/facing-the-wrath-of-the-khan/
