Qutayba ibn Muslim: Liberator of Transoxiana
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious the Most Merciful
Al-Walid ibn Abdul Malik’s caliphate was a legendary age of conquest. Qutayba ibn Muslim رَحِمَهُ ٱللَّٰهُ was tasked to venture into Central Asia and took the Muslim armies to the borders of China. A master of diplomacy who commanded a multi tribal alliance, Qutayba ibn Muslim reshaped the lands of Samarkand, Bukhara and lands across Transoxiana. This article explores his conquests, alliances and sincere jihad in the cause of Islam.
Entry into Transoxiana
Transoxiana means 'Land beyond the Oxus', or Mā warāʾ al-nahr in Arabic, which was a vast region of fertile river valleys dotted with towns and villages. It was bordered by wide deserts and mountainous ranges, making the region difficult to invade. The settled population were Persians who inhabited the towns and villages while Turks were largely nomads. The main religions were Zoroastrianism or Buddhism.
These Central Asian lands cover parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and spill into parts of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan. It lies between the Amu Darya (the Oxus) and the Syr Darya. To the East were the frontiers of the Chinese Tang dynasty which had peace treaties with inhabitants in the local area.
Transoxiana was formally conquered by the Sasanian Empire, however the Persians never ruled it as part of a central government. Instead the region contained a network of tribal confederates, city states and local kingdoms owned by Turkish chieftains. As a result, the inhabitants were hostile to a centralised government and valued their independence, which was challenged when the Arab armies arrived in the region. (Kennedy, 2007, 225)
First Arab conquests into Central Asia
The early Arab expeditions into Transoxiana were raids, exploratory campaigns and minor expeditions to recapture territories. The Muslims faced resistance and attacks against their authority and couldn’t establish a stable, permanent presence. The first phase of conquests were between the 650s to 705 which saw Arab governors installed in various towns, but didn't own large sections of territory. The first expeditions into Transoxiana occurred decades after the defeat of the Sasanian Empire under Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Al Khatab رضي الله عنهم. Further conquests into the region took place after the capture of Merv from 650-51 under Uthman ibn Affan رضي الله عنه .
Caliph Uthman installed Rabi ibn Ziyad as the governor of Khurasan who led early advances beyond the River Jayhun (Amu Raya), entering into Trimiz, Bukara and Bikand. In 54AH (674) Muwaiyah ibn Abu Sufyan appointed Sai'd ibn Uthman ibn Affan to reconquer Tirmiz and Bukhara which refused to pay jizyah (non-Muslim tax). More cities were conquered by the Muslims and new provinces appeared.
By the early 700s Arab armies had conquered almost all of Khurasan up to the Oxos, installing governors in Iraq, Khurasan and Sistan and cities in Afghanistan. Their main eastern bases were Merv and Balkh in which armies were sent to crush insurgents. However they had not fully conquered the region. This would change in 705 (86 AH) when Iraq’s governor Hajjaj ibn Yusuf selected Quitayba ibn Muslim as Khurasan’s governor. This appointment would change Arab fortunes in the region. (Al Omary, 2021, 22-8).
Qutayba ibn Muslim: The Diplomatic General
When Qutayba ibn Muslim Al Bahili became governor of Khurasan, there was deep factionalism and distrust between Arab tribes. They were regularly involved in quarrels which created instability amongst Khurasan’s Arabs. Qutayba was in a strong position to establish peace. He came from the small Arab tribe of Bahila and was not attached to any of the great tribes, allowing him to be neutral in feuds. This also protected him from favouring one tribe over the other. (Kennedy, 2017, 255-6)
Similarly, the new governor had to manage the increasingly restless Persian population. Many local non-Arab converts found themselves excluded from senior positions and resented the Arab administration. Qutayba ibn Muslim was a skilled administrator with a goal to unite Khurasan’s residents under the banner of Islam and lead them further into Transoxiana. He negotiated with local elites and formed diplomatic alliances with the majority Persian population. He recognised the only way an Arab government could exist in the region was due to the cooperation of the larger Persian population. As a result, Qutayba would employ them in his administration, favour Persian governors and would regularly consult with them. While it sometimes earned the anger of the Arab elites, Qutayba's diplomacy earned him the trust of the Persians. He gained the loyalty of all parties in Khurasan, consisting of Persians and Arabs, Qays and Yemenis who served under his command. (Gibb, 1923, 29)
Early Conquests in Transoxiana
The situation in Central Asia also provided an opportunity for conquest. By 682, China had been weakened by wars with Tibet. From 699 to 711 rival Turkic tribes fought one another as eastern groups battled the Turgesh. This made them incapable of blocking an impending Muslim invasion. (Gibb, 1923, 29-31)
In 706 CE (87 AH) Qutayba ibn Muslim first led his army from his base in Merv. He was said to address his soldiers before leading a raid across the river, urging them to conduct jihad. He told them:
“Allah has brought you here so that He may make His religion strong, protect sacred things through you… increase the abundance of wealth and mete out harsh treatment to the enemy.”
He quoted Surah Al-Imran:
Never think of those martyred in the cause of Allah as dead. In fact, they are alive with their Lord, well provided for.
He urged his army to overlook ethnic or tribal solidarity and be united in a campaign of jihad as Muslims: Arab or non-Arab.
The Muslim forces captured central areas across Transoxiana. His army entered the city of Balkh, Tokharistan, Shuman and Badhghıs. Much of the conquests were met by submission from the local rulers who gave gifts and handed over tributes in order to keep their positions.
The following winter campaign took Qutayba ibn Muslim’s army to As-Sughd (Sogdiana) which was on the road to Bukhara. The inhabitants lived in a fortified citadel and refused to submit to the Muslim army. However, when the siege overwhelmed them its people made a peace offering. After Ibn Muslim’s army withdrew, news reached him that the people had risen up and killed the Arab governor he'd installed.
The Muslim forces entered into a month-long blockade outside the town of Paykand, Sogdiana. Qutayba installed soldiers to dig a siege mine under the city’s walls. The Muslim army forced itself in, and its inhabitants submitted to the conquerors. The fighting men were killed, and the women and children taken into captivity. (Kennedy, 2017, 256-9)
The Capture of Bukhara and Samarqand
Before the Muslim conquest, Bukhara was weakened by civil war and invasions. Nobles had been fighting for power, in which many territories including Bukhara had been seized by the Prince of Wardana while other districts were under a ruler named Bukhar Kundah.
While the Muslims prepared to advance to Bukhara, the nobles realised the threat of invasion, leading to Bukhara’s ruler, Wardan Khurdan organising a large force to fight back. In another expedition in 88AH (707) Qutayba ibn Muslim did not directly confront the nobles’ forces but evaded them, only facing a skirmish with the enemy cavalry.
However, Ibn Muslim wasn't able to defeat the united forces of the three princes: Wardan, Kish and Nasaf in which the Arab armies were sent back to Merv. This led to Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf reprimanding his lieutenant and drawing up a plan of attack.
The invasion of Bukhara took place in 90AH (709) in which the Muslim army put Bukhara under siege, which ended with its king fleeing in 93AH (711). When the Muslim army entered, they destroyed the fire temples, built mosques and established Islamic law.
The army proceeded to Khawarizm’s lands and subdued Samarqand which rebelled against the Islamic state. The inhabitants offered to pay jiziya (non-Muslim tax) and gifted a number of slaves. However Qutayba ibn Muslim refused all compensation except that they built a mosque in their city to protect its worshippers. He ordered the destruction of old fire temples and idols and sculptures which were burnt. (Gibb, 1923, 33-36)
Interaction with The Chinese Emperor
In 94AH (713) Qutayba ibn Muslim invaded As Shas (Tashkent) and Farghandah and other cities to establish control over the Silk Road. By 96AH (175) he was at the border of the Chinese Empire. Diplomatic exchanges occurred when an Arab delegation was sent. The king interviewed the delegation, he told them:
'Go to your companion (Qutayba) and tell him to depart for I know what he wants and …how few men he has. If he does not, I will send men to annihilate you and him.'
Qutayba’s messengers retorted that the Muslim army was so expansive that the first of it was in China and the last were 'at the orchards of the olives.' The Emperor enquired what the Muslim army wanted and they said:
'The Commander has sworn that he will not depart until he has set foot on your land, shackled your kings and taken the jiziyah from you.'
The Emperor responded they would fulfil the oath. He provided wealth and gifts to Qutayba ibn Muslim, alongside golden dishes of soil and male slaves from the sons of kings.
Qutayba accepted the gifts, shackled the slaves and stepped on the soul to symbolise his entry into Chinese lands. The Muslim army later returned to Khurasan. (Al Omary, 2021, 212)
Soldier Mutiny and Death
Walid ibn Abdul Malik’s death in 715 affected the careers of his leading generals. They all became political enemies under the new caliph Sulayman ibn Abdul Malik, who won a turbulent succession battle to be caliph. Al-Walid had attempted to appoint his son over his younger brother - escalating into a bitter feud. After Sulayman came to power, the same year, any loyalists who supported Al-Walid were persecuted. This lead to the ousting of top generals like Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad who brought Islam to Spain, Muhammad ibn Qasim who reached the Indian subcontinent and Qutayba ibn Muslim, who stood at China's borders. Caliph Sulayman recalled Qutayba from Khurasan, who knew the caliph would punish him for backing rival factions against him. As a result the general rejected the caliph's orders and moved to Samarqand. In a risky move, Qutayba ibn Muslim gathered his soldiers and incited them to revolt against Sulayman ibn Abdul Malik.
However the soldiers rejected the order. They believed being loyal to the caliph would protect them from punishment. This caused Qutayba to lose legitimacy and become isolated. His complex intertribal alliance fell apart due to factionalism and competing loyalties. The Arab tribes mutinied against Ibn Muslim and backed a rival leader, while the Persians distanced themselves from Arab politics due to weak loyalties.
In 96AH, 751 Qutayba ibn Muslim was assassinated by his soldiers in an ambush on his tent, ending the legacy of a general who had established Islam across Transoxiana. (Kennedy, 2007, 273-6)
Conclusion: Legacy and Impact
It is evident Qutayba ibn Muslim was a masterful military general. At the peak of his tenure, he united both Arab and non-Arab tribes, secured alliances with princes and nobles and expanded to the borders of China. He played a major role in spreading Islam: building mosques, establishing justice and liberating lands from idol worship. He’d taken Khurasan to incredible heights, persuaded Arab and non-Arabs to unite in jihad in Allah’s cause. Due to his efforts, Islam spread across Transoxiana and exposed new populations to its teachings and values. He remains an integral part of the region's history, entrenched into its honoured legacy.
May Allah have mercy on Qutayba ibn Muslim رَحِمَهُ ٱللَّٰهُ for his contributions to spreading Islam and allow us to learn from his legacy. Ameen.
Bibliography
Al Omary, A.A.I. (2021) Islamic Conquests Throughout the Ages. Riyadh: Darussalam
H. A. R. Gibb (1923) The Arab conquests in Central Asia. London: Royal Asiatic Society. Available at: https://dn790007.ca.archive.org/0/items/arabconquestsinc00gibbuoft/arabconquestsinc00gibbuoft.pdf
Kennedy, H. (2007) The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press.
Quran.com Surah Āl ʿImrān 3:169. Available at: https://quran.com/ali-imran/169 (Accessed: 19 April 2026)
