Sultan Abdul Hamid II: The Last Great Ottoman Caliph
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious the Most Merciful
Sultan Abdul Hamid II, may Allah have mercy on him, stands as one of the most significant leaders the Muslim ummah has known — a statesman who led the Islamic Caliphate with resolve, safeguarded the dignity of Islam on the world stage, and strove relentlessly to revitalise the Empire in the face of mounting threats. What follows are some of his most notable achievements.
Refused to give Palestine to the Zionists
In 1896, Theodore Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid II proposing the sale of Palestine to the Jewish Zionists for settlement. In return, he offered a substantial payment to help settle the Empire’s growing debts. By the late 19th century, the Ottoman State’s debt had reached the equivalent of $11.6 billion today. Herzl’s offer amounted to £20 million — around $2.2 billion in today’s terms — enough to wipe out 20% of the state’s burden.
Yet the Ottomans flatly rejected the proposal. The Sultan’s resolute response was clear:
“I cannot sell even a foot of land, for it does not belong to me but to my people. My people have won this Empire by fighting for it with their blood and have fertilised it with their blood. We will again cover it with our blood before we allow it to be wrested away from us.”
In the Ottoman worldview, surrendering Muslim lands was unthinkable. But it was to Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s credit that he stood firm, refusing to sacrifice any part of the ummah’s territory for political or financial advantage. His stance exemplifies the essence of principled leadership: trusting in Allah, fulfilling the duty of custodianship, and upholding the dignity of the Muslim world against external pressures.
The Hejaz Railway
During his reign, Sultan Abdul Hamid II placed great importance on the cities of Makkah and Madinah, recognising their central place in the hearts of the Muslim ummah. He undertook extensive renovations to protect the sacred cities from flooding and commissioned the construction of hospitals and military barracks along the pilgrimage routes to support and safeguard pilgrims.
His most ambitious project was the Hejaz Railway — an extraordinary endeavour designed to connect Istanbul to the Holy Cities. The railway would pass through Syria and Palestine, ultimately extending to Makkah, with the aim of easing the journey for pilgrims who had long endured arduous travel by camel or on foot. By significantly reducing both the distance and hardship of the Hajj, Sultan Abdul Hamid sought not only to facilitate worship but to strengthen the bonds between the heartlands of the Muslim world and its capital.
It was also necessary to strengthen the bonds between the diverse regions of the Islamic world and reinforce the ties of Islamic unity at a time when nationalist movements were rapidly gaining ground. The Hejaz Railway became a symbol of this unity — not just a logistical project, but a spiritual and political statement.
Funding for the railway was raised directly from the Muslim ummah, marking the first major collective effort of its kind. Muslims from across the world contributed as an act of sadaqah jariyah, a continuous charity, with the shared intention of easing the journey of pilgrims to the Sacred Sites. The Ottomans were deliberate in ensuring that no foreign loans were taken, nor debts incurred, preserving both the sanctity of the project and the financial sovereignty of the Empire.
Defending the Prophet ﷺ
Sultan Abdul Hamid II was steadfast in protecting the prestige of the Islamic Caliphate, particularly in the face of growing hostility towards Islam in Europe — a hostility he feared would endanger the dignity and well-being of Muslim populations. A notable example of his vigilance came in 1888, when the French poet Marquis Henri de Bornier authored a play titled Mahomet, which contained offensive and derogatory depictions of the Prophet ﷺ.
Upon learning of the play, the Sultan acted swiftly. He dispatched a letter to the Ottoman Embassy in Paris, condemning the play and urging the authorities to prevent its performance. The matter was taken up directly with Gustave Olivier Lannes de Montebello, the French ambassador to Istanbul, with whom the Sultan personally raised his objections. As a result of these efforts, the play was banned in France — a decision that was later extended to Britain as well.
This incident reflects Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s unwavering commitment to defending the honour of Islam and the Prophet ﷺ on the international stage, ensuring that the caliphate remained a respected and dignified institution in the eyes of the world.
Sultan Abdul Hamid II was an exceptional statesman and a remarkably astute leader, skilfully navigating the Ottoman Empire through a period marked by relentless international crises and Western attempts to destabilise the state. He deftly played the European powers against one another, protecting the Muslim world from the very real threat of colonial encroachment and fragmentation.
Resisted Colonialism
His greatest concern lay in the prospect of Britain, Russia, and France uniting against the Ottomans to dismantle the Caliphate. To counter this, he masterfully offset the ambitions of these powers, manipulating their rivalries to prevent any one of them from gaining the upper hand. He was especially strategic in applying diplomatic pressure — such as leveraging British vulnerabilities in India — to protect Muslim domains like Egypt from imperial domination.
It was this finely-tuned diplomacy that shielded the Empire from many looming disasters and safeguarded the integrity of Muslim lands under his custodianship. For three decades, the Caliphate was stabilised under his rule, a testament to his political acumen. As Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany famously remarked: “I have learned politics from Abdulhamid.”
Centralised Education
Prioritising Islamic education was a central part of Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s policy. He established a centralised education system to train students and revitalised higher education institutions, laying the foundations of modern Islamic education.
The Sultan funded the opening of new schools, ensuring education reached every corner of Anatolia. By 1878, educational activity had "spread widely across the entire empire."
He personally oversaw the preparation of school curricula, aiming to "raise generations well-versed in Islamic ethics." His vision blended modern education with Islamic sciences, and he introduced detailed regulations for teachers to uphold both conduct and teaching quality. The Sultan was committed to embedding a strong Islamic foundation throughout the schooling system.
Sultan Abdul Hamid II established schools across all levels—primary, secondary, and university—reflecting his deep commitment to education. He made learning a right accessible to all, strengthening and expanding higher education in various fields. Institutions included Schools of Commerce, Law, Veterinary Science, and the Civil Service School.
Many prestigious universities were founded during his reign, most notably the Dârülfünun-ı Şahane, opened in 1900. It featured faculties of Theology, Literature and Philosophy, and Science—showcasing the Sultan’s dedication to creating a well-rounded, educated ummah.
His efforts were highly effective. At the start of his reign, there were just 250 schools. By 1909, that number had risen to 900, transforming the empire into a thriving centre of learning over his 33-year rule.
Care for Animals
Sultan Abdul Hamid II was also known for his deep compassion towards animals. Within the grounds of Yıldız Palace, his official residence, he kept over 1,500 cats of various breeds, alongside a private zoo housing numerous exotic species. His affection extended beyond the palace — the Sultan took particular care of street animals, especially the stray dogs of Istanbul, ensuring their protection and welfare across the empire.
In a remarkable display of humane leadership, Sultan Abdul Hamid invited the renowned French microbiologist Louis Pasteur to Istanbul to find a cure for rabies, with the specific intention of treating infected dogs rather than having them killed. He generously contributed 10,000 lire to the Pasteur Institute in Paris to support further research in this field, and even sent his own envoys to train under Pasteur’s guidance.
This dedication to the welfare of animals reflects a broader dimension of the Sultan’s character — one rooted in mercy, stewardship, and the Islamic ethic of kindness to all living beings.
Reviving Our Collective Identity
Sultan Abdul Hamid II was the last powerful Ottoman caliph. He worked to stabilise the empire amid debt, Western encroachment, and the Zionist threat. His goal was to unite Muslims and defend Islamic lands. After his era, the caliphate survived only under figureheads. It was abolished in 1924, ending a unified ummah and replacing it with independent states driven by self-interest. Today, we are conditioned to accept a Western-led world order, which has bred war, instability, economic inequality, and environmental destruction. The question is: how can we use our history to revive an Islamic culture of unity and independence?
To restore our lost Islamic traditions, we must look to our history, which offers a wealth of knowledge — especially on the idea of the collective ummah. Sultan Abdul Hamid II embodied this principle in his policies, striving to unite Muslims into one community. He promoted social and economic integration, education and easy access to Muslim lands.
These alliances built layers of cooperation, enabling people to network, develop projects, and share innovations across all sectors. More importantly, they fostered a collective identity. Unlike the narrow nationalist model, this broader network empowered the ummah on a global scale.
Today, the ummatic system can still be revived. Many Muslims are in STEM, law, the arts, education, politics, and media — central fields of knowledge production. We must use our skills to build networks and alliances, sparking an intellectual revival that strengthens our Islamic identity across diverse disciplines.
For example, Muslims in education can follow Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s example, who funded universities and structured curriculums to allow students to gather and exchange ideas. Such spaces remain vital today for fostering collaboration and innovation. Educators should develop a faith-centred curriculum that blends Islamic thought with modern sciences, nurturing critical thinking rooted in spiritual values to prepare students for meaningful contributions to their communities. Muslims across all fields need to collaborate through conferences and meetings to share ideas and create faith-centred models. This collective effort will help revive the ummatic system.
It is clear the Muslim ummah still lives today, even if it is weakened. Though divided over the past century, we share the pain of Gaza, Sudan, and beyond. Our connection is rooted in a shared history. Our lands, caliphate, and great leaders form part of a common identity — both historical and spiritual.
To truly revive the ummah, we must restore this connection through cooperation and shared purpose. When we reclaim our ummatic identity, we will overcome past defeats and unite once more, Inshallah.
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Jazakallah khair for reading. Please benefit the ummah by sharing this knowledge and downloading a transcript below. Feel free to use it for your own research or personal study.
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