When the Ummah Lost Its Caliphate: Lessons from the fall of Abassids

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious the Most Merciful

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire wasn’t the first time the ummah lost its caliphate. The global shock, the collapse of our unity brought a pain etched into our history, and its impact is still felt today. 

Preceding this was also a significant event. The 12th century collapse of the Abassid caliphate by the Mongols. While the caliphate was briefly revived under the Mamluks, it never regained its strength after the Baghdad invasion, paving the way for the Ottomans. This article reviews the events leading up to the Baghdad invasion and what lessons we can gather from this infamous period of history. To learn about the defeat of the Mongols, please see the article about Saiffudin Qutuz, detailing the battle of Ayn Jalut.

Invasion of the Khawarizm Empire

Before the Mongols stormed into the Islamic world, Central Asia was ruled by the Khwarazmian Empire, which rose after the Seljuks' decline. Its territory spanned modern Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Iran, and parts of Pakistan. In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan held a peace treaty with its ruler, Muhammad Shah II, with a future goal of attacking the Abbasid Caliphate. In 1218, the Khwarazmian governor of Otrar, Inalchuq, seized and executed a Mongol trade caravan, believing them to be spies. Genghis Khan sent an envoy to the Shah demanding the governor be handed over for punishment. The Shah refused, viewing it as interference in his sovereignty. He had the envoy executed, giving the Khan the pretext for war. (Islam, 2016, pg 315-6).

Muhammad Khwarazm Shah was a controversial ruler, better known for alienating allies than forging unity. Historian Ibn al-Athir notes that his 21-year reign was marked by ‘removing most of his rivals.’ Focused on consolidating power, he neglected alliances with other Muslim leaders, including the Abbasid Caliph al-Nasir in Baghdad, with whom he had a hostile relationship. Similarly, neighbouring powers like the Turks and Ghurids had no agreements with the Shah and were under no obligation to support him. Lacking allies, he faced the Mongols alone—while their army, by contrast, was strengthened by inter-tribal unity, comprising of Mongols, Turks, Tartars, and others. (Ibn Athir, 2015, pg 1-2)

In 1219, Genghis Khan and Muhammad Khwarazm Shah clashed east of the Syr Darya in present-day Kazakhstan. The battle lasted four days, with 20,000 Muslims martyred and the Mongols suffering heavy losses. Outnumbered and without reinforcements, the Muslim forces were soon overwhelmed. The Shah abandoned his army, fleeing to his capital, Gurganj, more concerned with securing his throne than leading his men. This left Muslims in smaller towns exposed and defenceless, with no support. Muhammad Khwarazm Shah fled with his family while a Mongol army pursued him. In April 1220, they tracked him into Khurasan but lost his trail near Nishapur. By December, the Shah reached an island in the Caspian Sea with a small group, eventually rowing ‘to a small island in Astrabad,’ where he died days later. Some say he succumbed to illness; others claim he died of despair over losing his empire. (Davidson, 2024)

Attack on Bukhara and Samarqand 

The Mongol onslaught against the Khwarazmian Empire began with the siege of Otrar in 1219, after the infamous massacre of a Mongol trade caravan. The city's governor, Inalchuq, faced the invaders. When the Mongols breached the outer defences, leaders who attempted to flee were captured and executed without mercy. Yet, the citadel itself became a beacon of Islamic resistance, holding out fiercely for over a month. Muslim warriors launched relentless counter-attacks until the last defenders were martyred. In an act of psychological warfare, the Mongols used the bodies of these fallen Muslims as human shields in their assault on subsequent cities.

Bukhara followed. Here, the Mongols promised leniency if the gates were opened. This offer sparked fierce debate among the Muslims—some, hoping to spare the populace, argued for surrender; others, unwilling to trust the enemy's word, took refuge in the city's fortified citadel. 

When the gates opened, Genghis Khan entered but wasted no time laying siege to the citadel, which endured for ten harrowing days. The Muslim defenders fought with unmatched valour, refusing surrender until every last one was slain, martyred in the ruins of their sanctuary. (Juvaini, 1958, 317-9).

In Samarqand, the situation was more tragic. The city, famed for its grandeur and scholarship, saw its military paralysed by fear. Refusing to face the invaders, they left civilians to organise their own defence. For three days, common citizens, scholars, and volunteers took up arms against the Mongol tide. On the third day, the Mongols feigned a retreat, luring the defenders into an ambush where they were surrounded and annihilated—‘over 50,000 Khwarazmian fighters perished in that engagement alone.’ The remaining soldiers and civilians surrendered, clinging to Mongol promises of mercy. Yet, true to the invaders' cruelty, many were executed despite their submission, while others were enslaved and scattered across the steppes. (Stubbs, 2020).

Collapse of the Abassid Caliphate 

Genghis Khan didn’t live out to carry all the destruction with his Mongol army. He died in 1227 and his empire was divided between his sons and grandsons. One being his grandson Hulago, who in 1256 sent a letter to Abassid caliph al-Mustasim Billah asking for troops to attack Alamut, the citadel of the Ismali sect but the caliph refused.

This led to another letter in 1258, this time more severe and threatening, demanding his submission:

The past is over. Destroy your ramparts, fill your moats, turn the kingdom over to your son and come to us….If you do not heed our advice…get ready. When I lead my troops in wrath against Baghdad even if you hide in the sky or the earth, I shall bring you down. 

I shall not leave one person alive in your realm, and I shall put your city and country to the torch. If you desire to have mercy on your ancient family’s heads, heed my advice.

The caliph was outraged by the letter, and responded back with pride.

Young man, you have just come of age and have expectations of living forever. You think your command is absolute. 

Does the prince not know that from the east to the west, from king to beggar, from old to young, all who are God fearing and God worshipping are servants of this court in my army?

When I motion for all those who are dispersed to come together, I will deal first with Iran and then turn my attention to Turan and I will put everything in its proper place. 

(Ansary, 2009, 154-6)

Hulago’s forces attacked Baghdad in 3rd February 1258. They destroyed the entire city, levelling schools, mosques, businesses and homes. The House of Wisdom, which contained philosophical and ancient texts, was burned into the ground. They took its books and threw it into the river until the water turned black. They even built a bridge using them in place of bricks, along with clay and water.

The Mongols left no one alive. Not even the animals, and went on a pillaging spree, plundering and killing anyone they saw. An estimated 800,000 were slaughtered in the genocide.

Ibn Kathir described the dire situation. 

’They turned upon the city, killing everyone they were able to, including men, women and children, the old the middle aged and the young. Many people went into wells, toiles and sewage drains and they hid there for days. 

‘The people fled to the highest places but they were killed on the rooftops, so many of them killed that the sprouts ran with blood.’

‘In the last sermon delivered in the Grand Mosque of Baghdad after 34 days had passed from the time of the slaughter, the imam said: ‘All praise and thanks be to Allah who has decreed an end to lives by death and the dwellers of this city to vanish. O Allah, reward us on our calamities, the like of which has never been wreaked upon Islam and its adherents before.’

Inadequate Leadership 

Baghdad was a fortified city which had been strengthened over 500 years, but was led by a weak ruler. Al Mustasmim was largely reliant on his Shi’ite Vizier Mu’ayyidudeen Al Alqami who advised him to pay jiziyah to Hulago to avoid a possible attack. The caliph was not concerned with protecting Baghdad, and instead focused on entertainment.

When the Mongols had been preparing for an invasion, the caliph sent a letter to Badruddeen Lul’lu, Ruler of Mosul asking for a singing girl to be sent to his court, known for her beautiful voice. The same day, the ruler received a letter from Hulago asking him for reinforcements to bring down Baghdad. 

Badruddeen said: ‘Look at these two messengers and weep for Islam and its people.’

When the army arrived, the caliph was terrified as he hadn’t heard news of its arrival. He set up an urgent cabinet meeting. Vizier Al Alqami suggested the surrender of Baghdad to avoid military confrontation. His ministers demanded they fight. 

But their numbers were low. Hulago led 200,000 troops sent in from Russia, Armenia and China. The Muslim army only mustered around 10,000. Yet the city’s inhabitants numbered over a million. It was possible for a larger army to have been gathered to confront the Mongols but the rulers were not serious about the threat.

Ibn Kathir narrates: 

‘The forces of Baghdad were very few in number and their morale was extremely low. There were less than ten thousand horsemen and they were the last of the army. All of them neglected their duty and many of them were begging in the markets and the doors of the mosques. Poets recited verses bemoaning them and lamenting the state of Islam and the Muslims - this was due to the Rafidite Visier Al Alqami.’

The Muslim army led by Mujahidduddin Aybak went to defend Baghdad, however they were crushed in a battle in the city’s outskirts where the Muslims were severely outnumbered. It was a devastating loss. Afterwards, the caliph agreed to peace talks. He sent a delegation with Vizier Al Alqami who arrived with his sons and servants and surrendered to Hulago. He was received warmly as he’d been in contact with he Mongol general before his arrival to Baghdad.

Hulago demanded the caliph come to him personally and outlined surrender terms: Al Mustasim had to accept the punishment of the ministers who’d advocated for jihad. The Iraqi fortresses would be destroyed and weapons to be handed over. The rule of Baghdad had to be under the supervision of the Mongols, with the caliph remaining as ruler.

However while the peace talks were happening, the city was still being attacked. As a result, the caliph surrendered, accompanied with ‘700 men, servants, emirs, judges and scholars.’ When they arrived, only 17 could meet with Hulago. The rest were executed and their possessions plundered. The caliph was kept alive to show the Mongols were the treasures of Baghdad were. The remaining group which included Rafidite Visier Al Alqami, helped locate the treasures. 

The treasury was looted, confiscating jewels, gold and thousands of dinars.

The caliph was pressed to disclose where the rest of the wealth was. He obeyed - ordering a hole to be dug inside of the palace which revealed a container filled with gold. Hulago berated Al Mustasim for not using his enormous wealth to fund the Muslim troops.

After the Mongol general received what he wanted. He ordered for the caliph to be killed. However the Mongols believed shedding royal blood would cause them to be cursed. Instead they wrapped the caliph in a carpet and kicked him to death. 

The destruction of the city coupled with the murder of its caliph signalled the end of the Abassid caliphate in 1258. (Al Omary, 2021, 396-401)

What We can Learn Today 

The destruction of the caliphate and the invasions of the Khawarizm lands exposes the lack of resistance and strong leadership, leading to unnecessary bloodshed. The events were arguably avoidable, and if there had been greater organisation in the Muslim world, it would’ve repelled the rapid invasions which exploited a lack of cohesion and organisation. 

Most notably, the Muslim army hadn’t been lacking in finances. When Hulago entered the Abassid palace, he noted the scale of wealth and enquired why it wasn’t used to fund a global army. 

This exposes a shameful reality that the enemy was expecting the Muslims to prepare for war, and when we didn’t, it lead to our annihilation. 

Similarly, the fate of Muhammad Khawarizm Shah and Al Mustasim showcases the reality of unfit leadership and the fate of rulers who refuse to protect Muslim lands. This is an ongoing problem in our history, where rulers are selected to govern kingdoms on the basis of lineage and not merit. They refuse to fight jihad in Allah’s cause, prioritising their titles and wealth, even if it’s at the expense of their subjects. 

Allah describes such people in Surah Tawbah:

قُلْ إِن كَانَ ءَابَآؤُكُمْ وَأَبْنَآؤُكُمْ وَإِخْوَٰنُكُمْ وَأَزْوَٰجُكُمْ وَعَشِيرَتُكُمْ وَأَمْوَٰلٌ ٱقْتَرَفْتُمُوهَا وَتِجَـٰرَةٌۭ تَخْشَوْنَ كَسَادَهَا وَمَسَـٰكِنُ تَرْضَوْنَهَآ أَحَبَّ إِلَيْكُم مِّنَ ٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦ وَجِهَادٍۢ فِى سَبِيلِهِۦ فَتَرَبَّصُوا۟ حَتَّىٰ يَأْتِىَ ٱللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِۦ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ لَا يَهْدِى ٱلْقَوْمَ ٱلْفَـٰسِقِينَ ٢٤

Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “If your parents and children and siblings and spouses and extended family and the wealth you have acquired and the trade you fear will decline and the homes you cherish—˹if all these˺ are more beloved to you than Allah and His Messenger and struggling in His Way, then wait until Allah brings about His Will. Allah does not guide the rebellious people.”

(9:24) 

Loving Allah and His Messenger should be the priority of every Muslim, alongside striving in Allah’s way through jihad. If one’s wealth, businesses and family are more important it will lead to their humiliation and disgrace, due to a lack of divine guidance.

For the 12th century Muslim rulers, their responsibility was to prioritise the safety of their lands. Instead their populations were abandoned, forcing them to confront the enemy alone. As a result, Samarqand and Bukhara’s populations were eradicated, allowing the Mongol troops to advance to Baghdad. 

If there had been a priority to wage jihad, the caliph could’ve used the treasures of Baghdad to fund a global army to attack the Mongols. Every scholar should’ve stood at the pulpits reminding the Muslims of the importance of jihad in the way of Allah. This would’ve galvanised the Muslims to unify and fight back.

Jihad comes in all forms - spiritual, military and verbal, but they were not utilised. This led to depleted armies, disorganisation and low morale.

As for the leaders of Khawarizm and the Abassid caliphate, none of them had honourable ends due to their negligence. 

This will be the fate of contemporary Muslim leaders if they don’t return to fighting the oppressors and protecting the believers. Instead, they wage war on them. They detain and attack Muslims trying to rescue their brothers. They protect the interests of the disbelievers at sea, and intercept rockets heading to the enemy lands. Meanwhile Muslim leaders pay Jiziyah to the US, warmly receiving their warmongering president into our lands. We offer business deals, planes and gold, only to find ourselves humiliated shortly after.

It shows that even the most generous terms offered to kufar (disbelieving) leaders will lead to humiliation. We have never earned the respect of the world through turning to peace talks, unfavourable treaties and bribing the oppressors. The tradition of the Muslims is to protect the weak, spread the word of Allah through conquest and fighting the tyrants. Without it, we will never be honoured:

Allah the Almighty says in the Quran:

۞ فَلْيُقَـٰتِلْ فِى سَبِيلِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلَّذِينَ يَشْرُونَ ٱلْحَيَوٰةَ ٱلدُّنْيَا بِٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ ۚ وَمَن يُقَـٰتِلْ فِى سَبِيلِ ٱللَّهِ فَيُقْتَلْ أَوْ يَغْلِبْ فَسَوْفَ نُؤْتِيهِ أَجْرًا عَظِيمًۭا ٧٤

Let those who would sacrifice this life for the Hereafter fight in the cause of Allah. And whoever fights in Allah’s cause—whether they achieve martyrdom or victory—We will honour them with a great reward.

Al Nisa (4:74) 

As an ummah, we must utilise the lessons from the Quran and sunnah which reminds us of our duty to defend the believers. Our history teaches us the consequences of those who don’t, and provides a blueprint of how to move forward. In this age, we have a duty to educate, rally and fund resistance movements to defend the oppressed. We must collectivise like the martyrs in Samarqand and Bukhara who did their best to fight the invaders.

We must help our oppressed brothers whether through land, air or sea to break the hold of the tyrants. The young generation must be educated and prepared - our cause funded and organised.

We cannot depend on weak leadership who ally with tyrants. Change must come from ordinary Muslims, who value Allah and His messenger more than their families, jobs and wealth.

When we re-learn our sacred history which taught us to defend the weak and fight the strong - we will become the heroes of tomorrow - Inshallah.

May Allah awaken the spirit of the Muslims, to learn from their mistakes and become educated and guided to defend our lands and stand up to the tyrants, Ameen. 

__________________

Jazakallah khair for reading. Please benefit the ummah by sharing this knowledge and downloading a transcript below. Feel free to use it for your own research or personal study. 

Bibliography

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Al Omary, A. I. I. (2021) Islamic Conquests Throughout the Ages. Darussalam Publications. ISBN 9786035004596.

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Juvaini, 'Ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik. The History of the World-Conqueror. Translated by John Andrew Boyle, vol. 1, Harvard University Press, 1958. Internet Archive Accessed [July, 2025]. https://archive.org/details/historyof...

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Accessed [July, 2025]. www.australianislamiclibrary.org https://archive.org/details/IbnAlAthirInCicilianMuslims/Chronicle_of_Ibn_al_Athir%20Part%203%20Intro/page/n3/mode/2up

Refaat, A. (2025) 'Does Jihad Fulfill Our Purpose? Part 1 of 2', Al Jumuah Magazine, 2 months ago. Available at: https://www.aljumuah.com/does-jihad-fulfill-our-purpose-part-1-of-2/ (Accessed: 28 September 2025).

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